cohort_name,estimate,value,diagnostics,source
hypertension,Clinical description,"Hypertension is primarily essential, meaning it has no identifiable underlying cause, though a combination of genetic and lifestyle factors contribute. Secondary hypertension, where a specific underlying condition (e.g., kidney disease, endocrine disorders) causes the elevated blood pressure, accounts for a smaller proportion of cases.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
hypertension,Frequency,"Hypertension is very frequently seen, affecting a significant portion of the adult population globally. It is readily identifiable in various real-world healthcare datasets.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
hypertension,Median age of incident cases,"50 to 65 (Individuals typically present with hypertension in middle to older age, though it can occur earlier.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
hypertension,Percentage male,"45% to 55% (The prevalence of hypertension is generally similar between males and females, with some variations across age groups.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
hypertension,Survival at five years,"85% to 95% (While hypertension is a chronic condition, treated individuals typically have high five-year survival, though long-term complications can reduce it.)",cohort_survival,gemini-2.5-flash
hypertension,Cohort overlap,"Type 2 diabetes: 20-40%, Hospitalised inpatient: 30-60%, User of warfarin: 10-20%, User of acetaminophen: 60-80%, User of morphine: 5-15%, Measurement of prostate specific antigen level: 40-60%",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
hypertension,Cohort timing,Hypertension diagnosis often precedes Type 2 diabetes by a few years; typically predates warfarin use by many years; can precede hospitalisation by many years or be diagnosed concurrently; can be concurrent with acetaminophen use; typically precedes morphine use; typically precedes or is concurrent with prostate specific antigen level measurement.,compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
hypertension,Frequently seen comorbidities,"Type 2 diabetes, Dyslipidaemia, Coronary artery disease, Stroke, Chronic kidney disease, Obesity, Atrial fibrillation, Heart failure, Peripheral artery disease, Obstructive sleep apnoea (These comorbidities are frequently seen because they share common risk factors with hypertension and can both contribute to its development and be consequences of prolonged elevated blood pressure.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
hypertension,Frequently seen signs and symptoms,"Headache, Dizziness, Blurred vision, Epistaxis, Tinnitus, Chest pain, Dyspnoea, Palpitations, Fatigue, Facial flushing (Hypertension is often asymptomatic, and when signs or symptoms are present, they typically indicate severe elevation in blood pressure or the development of end-organ damage.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
hypertension,Frequently seen medications,"Ramipril, Valsartan, Amlodipine, Hydrochlorothiazide, Bisoprolol, Lisinopril, Losartan, Indapamide, Metoprolol, Furosemide (These medications are commonly prescribed as they form the first-line and subsequent treatment options for controlling blood pressure, targeting various physiological pathways.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
type_2_diabetes,Clinical description,Type 2 diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder characterised by high blood glucose levels resulting from insulin resistance and a relative lack of insulin production by the pancreas. It is primarily caused by a combination of genetic predisposition and lifestyle factors such as obesity and physical inactivity.,cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
type_2_diabetes,Frequency,"Type 2 diabetes is very frequently seen, affecting a significant portion of the adult population globally, and cases can be reliably identified across various real-world healthcare datasets due to diagnostic codes, laboratory results, and medication prescriptions.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
type_2_diabetes,Median age of incident cases,"45 to 65 (While diagnoses can occur at younger ages, the median age for incident type 2 diabetes typically falls within middle to older adulthood due to the progressive nature of insulin resistance.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
type_2_diabetes,Percentage male,"45% to 55% (The proportion of male cases is generally close to 50%, with minor variations depending on ethnicity and specific population cohorts.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
type_2_diabetes,Survival at five years,"85% to 95% (Five-year survival after diagnosis of type 2 diabetes is generally good, though it is lower than that of the general population due to increased risk of cardiovascular and renal complications.)",cohort_survival,gemini-2.5-flash
type_2_diabetes,Cohort overlap,"Expect an overlap with hypertension of 70-90%, hospitalised_inpatient of 20-50% annually, user_of_warfarin of 5-15%, user_of_acetaminophen of 30-60%, user_of_morphine of 5-20%, and measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level of 40-60% of male cases.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
type_2_diabetes,Cohort timing,"Hypertension is often diagnosed before or concurrently with type 2 diabetes (within 0-5 years before). Hospitalisation events typically occur years after diagnosis due to complications. Warfarin initiation often follows years after type 2 diabetes onset for related conditions. Acetaminophen use can occur before, concurrently, or after diagnosis. Morphine use typically occurs at any stage for severe pain. Measurement of prostate specific antigen level can be concurrent or years after diabetes diagnosis for males.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
type_2_diabetes,Frequently seen comorbidities,"Hypertension, dyslipidaemia, obesity, coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, stroke, chronic kidney disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, obstructive sleep apnoea, peripheral neuropathy. (These comorbidities are often linked to the shared underlying metabolic dysfunction, insulin resistance, and inflammatory processes associated with type 2 diabetes, or are direct complications of long-term hyperglycaemia.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
type_2_diabetes,Frequently seen signs and symptoms,"Polydipsia, polyuria, polyphagia, fatigue, blurred vision, numbness or tingling in extremities, slow-healing sores, recurrent infections, unexplained weight loss, irritability. (These signs and symptoms primarily arise from elevated blood glucose levels leading to increased osmotic diuresis, cellular energy dysfunction, and microvascular or neuropathic damage.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
type_2_diabetes,Frequently seen medications,"Metformin, gliclazide, sitagliptin, empagliflozin, liraglutide, insulin, ramipril, atorvastatin, aspirin, omeprazole. (Medications are prescribed to manage blood glucose levels, address insulin resistance, supplement insulin production, or treat common comorbidities and complications associated with type 2 diabetes.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
hospitalised_inpatient,Clinical description,"Hospitalised inpatient refers to an individual admitted to a hospital for medical care, implying an acute or severe health condition that cannot be managed in an outpatient setting, with aetiology stemming from a wide range of underlying acute illnesses, exacerbations of chronic diseases, injuries, or surgical requirements.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
hospitalised_inpatient,Frequency,"Hospitalisation is a frequently seen event in healthcare, and cases can be reliably identified across various real-world healthcare data types including electronic healthcare records, hospital administrative data, and insurance claims.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
hospitalised_inpatient,Median age of incident cases,"50 to 75 (Individuals typically present across all age ranges, but there is a higher incidence of hospitalisation in older adults due to the increased burden of chronic diseases.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
hospitalised_inpatient,Percentage male,"45% to 55% (The proportion of males hospitalised is generally similar to females, though specific causes for admission may show sex-related differences.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
hospitalised_inpatient,Survival at five years,"60% to 90% (Survival rates five years after hospitalisation are highly variable and depend on the underlying condition and patient factors, but are generally lower than the overall population.)",cohort_survival,gemini-2.5-flash
hospitalised_inpatient,Cohort overlap,"You would expect to see an overlap of 30-60% with hypertension, 20-40% with type 2 diabetes, 5-15% with user of warfarin, 40-70% with user of acetaminophen, 10-30% with user of morphine, and 5-20% with measurement of prostate specific antigen level.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
hospitalised_inpatient,Cohort timing,"Chronic conditions like hypertension and type 2 diabetes typically precede hospitalisation by many years, while medication use (e.g., acetaminophen, morphine, warfarin) and specific investigations (e.g., prostate specific antigen level) can occur concurrently or within weeks to months before or after admission.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
hospitalised_inpatient,Frequently seen comorbidities,"Hypertension, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, Coronary artery disease, Chronic kidney disease, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Congestive heart failure, Obesity, Depression, Dyslipidaemia, Osteoarthritis (These chronic conditions are frequently present in hospitalised patients as they can either directly lead to acute hospitalisation or complicate an existing acute illness.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
hospitalised_inpatient,Frequently seen signs and symptoms,"Fever, Pain, Dyspnoea, Fatigue, Nausea, Vomiting, Diarrhoea, Cough, Dizziness, Abdominal pain (These are general symptoms indicative of acute illness or exacerbation of chronic conditions that frequently necessitate hospital admission.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
hospitalised_inpatient,Frequently seen medications,"Paracetamol, Morphine, Amlodipine, Metformin, Ramipril, Furosemide, Salbutamol, Simvastatin, Warfarin, Omeprazole (These medications include common analgesics, antibiotics, and drugs for managing prevalent chronic conditions or complications that often lead to hospitalisation.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_warfarin,Clinical description,"Warfarin is an anticoagulant medication that inhibits the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors in the liver. It is prescribed to prevent and treat thromboembolic events such as deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, stroke in atrial fibrillation, and systemic embolism with mechanical heart valves.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_warfarin,Frequency,"Warfarin use is frequently seen, especially in older populations, and cases can be readily identified in primary care, hospital, and insurance claim real-world health care data.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_warfarin,Median age of incident cases,"65 to 79 (Individuals typically present in their later adult years, often due to age-related cardiovascular conditions requiring anticoagulation.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_warfarin,Percentage male,"45% to 55% (The proportion of males and females using warfarin is relatively balanced, though it may vary slightly depending on the underlying indication.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_warfarin,Survival at five years,50% to 80% (The 5-year survival among warfarin users varies widely depending on the severity of the underlying conditions for which it is prescribed.),cohort_survival,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_warfarin,Cohort overlap,"You would expect to see an overlap of 70-90% with hypertension, 30-50% with type 2 diabetes, 50-70% with hospitalised inpatient over a 5-year period, 90-100% with user of acetaminophen, 5-15% with user of morphine, and 20-40% for males with measurement of prostate specific antigen level. Overlap is expected due to shared risk factors for cardiovascular disease, the need for hospital care, and common medication use for pain management or other conditions.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_warfarin,Cohort timing,"Hypertension and type 2 diabetes typically precede warfarin initiation by many years. Hospitalised inpatient status can precede, be concurrent with, or follow warfarin initiation. Use of acetaminophen often precedes warfarin use by many years and is concurrent. Use of morphine is usually concurrent or follows, often in acute settings. Measurement of prostate specific antigen level usually precedes or is concurrent with warfarin use in older males, related to routine screening. Many chronic conditions like hypertension and type 2 diabetes typically manifest years before warfarin initiation, while hospitalisations and acute medication use can be concurrent or follow.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_warfarin,Frequently seen comorbidities,"Atrial fibrillation, Hypertension, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, Congestive heart failure, Ischaemic heart disease, History of stroke, History of deep vein thrombosis, History of pulmonary embolism, Peripheral arterial disease, Chronic kidney disease (These comorbidities often represent the primary indications for anticoagulation therapy or are common chronic conditions in the patient population requiring warfarin.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_warfarin,Frequently seen signs and symptoms,"Irregular heartbeat, Palpitations, Shortness of breath, Chest pain, Swelling of leg, Redness of leg, Leg pain, Haematuria, Melena, Ecchymosis (These signs and symptoms are either indicative of the thromboembolic conditions warfarin is prescribed to treat or are potential adverse effects of anticoagulation.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_warfarin,Frequently seen medications,"Aspirin, Metformin hydrochloride, Atenolol, Ramipril, Simvastatin, Furosemide, Digoxin, Paracetamol, Omeprazole, Levothyroxine sodium (These medications are frequently co-prescribed for managing cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and other conditions common in patients requiring warfarin.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_acetaminophen,Clinical description,"Acetaminophen is a widely used over-the-counter analgesic and antipyretic, primarily acting by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis in the central nervous system to reduce pain and fever. It is typically used for symptomatic relief of mild to moderate pain and fever from various acute and chronic conditions.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_acetaminophen,Frequency,"Acetaminophen is one of the most frequently used medications globally, and cohorts of users can be readily identified in pharmacy dispensing data, primary care prescribing records, and hospital administration records.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_acetaminophen,Median age of incident cases,"30 to 50 (Individuals across all age groups, from infants to the elderly, use acetaminophen, with usage patterns varying depending on the indication.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_acetaminophen,Percentage male,"45% to 55% (The proportion of male users of acetaminophen is generally balanced with females, although specific pain conditions may show slight sex-based differences.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_acetaminophen,Survival at five years,"90% to 98% (As acetaminophen is typically used for symptomatic relief rather than for life-threatening conditions, the five-year survival of a general user cohort is expected to be high, reflecting general population mortality.)",cohort_survival,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_acetaminophen,Cohort overlap,"You would expect to see an overlap of 30-60% with hypertension, 20-40% with type 2 diabetes, 20-50% with hospitalised inpatient, 5-15% with user of warfarin, 5-15% with user of morphine, and 10-20% with measurement of prostate specific antigen level. The overlap reflects both the high prevalence of acetaminophen use in the general population and its role in managing symptoms associated with common chronic conditions or acute illness requiring hospitalisation.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_acetaminophen,Cohort timing,"Acetaminophen use would typically follow diagnosis of hypertension by months to years. Acetaminophen use would typically follow diagnosis of type 2 diabetes by months to years. Entry into hospitalisation would typically coincide with or precede the initial use of acetaminophen for the acute event by hours to days. Acetaminophen use would typically follow initiation of warfarin by days to years. Acetaminophen use might precede, coincide with, or follow morphine use, often used as an adjunct, with timing varying from days to months. Acetaminophen use is typically independent of and not directly related in time to a prostate specific antigen measurement, preceding or following by an arbitrary duration of days to years. The timing often reflects acetaminophen being used to manage symptoms of pre-existing chronic conditions, or for acute issues that lead to hospitalisation or are managed alongside other medications.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_acetaminophen,Frequently seen comorbidities,"Headache, Osteoarthritis, Low back pain, Influenza, Common cold, Hypertension, Type 2 diabetes, Depression, Anxiety, Rheumatoid arthritis (These conditions either commonly cause pain or fever for which acetaminophen is used, or they represent highly prevalent chronic diseases in the adult population.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_acetaminophen,Frequently seen signs and symptoms,"Pain, Fever, Myalgia, Headache, Arthralgia, Malaise, Sore throat, Cough, Nausea, Vomiting (These are the primary symptoms for which acetaminophen provides relief, reflecting its analgesic and antipyretic properties.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_acetaminophen,Frequently seen medications,"Ibuprofen, Naproxen, Codeine, Aspirin, Diphenhydramine, Pseudoephedrine, Omeprazole, Amlodipine, Metformin, Atorvastatin (Users of acetaminophen may also take other over-the-counter pain relievers or cold/flu medications, or medications for common chronic conditions.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_morphine,Clinical description,"Morphine is a potent opioid analgesic used to treat severe pain, often associated with acute conditions like surgery or trauma, chronic conditions such as cancer, or for palliative care. Its aetiology of use is primarily for symptomatic relief of pain, and sometimes dyspnoea, rather than treating an underlying disease process.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_morphine,Frequency,"Morphine users are frequently seen, especially in inpatient settings and palliative care. Cases can be identified in various real-world health care data sources, including hospital records, primary care prescriptions, and insurance claims.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_morphine,Median age of incident cases,"55 to 75 (Individuals using morphine typically present across a wide age range, but a higher median age reflects its common use in older adults for chronic and palliative care, though it is also used in younger adults for acute pain or in cases of opioid use disorder.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_morphine,Percentage male,"45% to 55% (The proportion of male and female users is generally balanced, though specific underlying conditions (e.g., prostate cancer in males, certain chronic pain conditions more prevalent in females) or patterns of opioid use disorder may cause slight variations.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_morphine,Survival at five years,"10% to 40% (Five-year survival for a cohort of morphine users is often low due to the severe, often life-limiting, underlying conditions for which morphine is prescribed, such as advanced cancer or end-stage organ failure.)",cohort_survival,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_morphine,Cohort overlap,"Expect substantial overlap: 60-90% with hospitalised_inpatient, 40-70% with user_of_acetaminophen, 30-50% with hypertension, 20-40% with type_2_diabetes, 10-25% with user_of_warfarin, and 5-15% with measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level. The high overlap with 'hospitalised_inpatient' and 'user_of_acetaminophen' is due to morphine often being initiated in hospital settings and paracetamol being a common co-analgesic.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_morphine,Cohort timing,"For hypertension, type_2_diabetes, and user_of_warfarin, entry into these cohorts would typically precede morphine use by several years, as they are often chronic, established conditions. For hospitalised_inpatient and user_of_acetaminophen, entry would often be simultaneous with, or within days of, initial morphine use, reflecting acute pain management. For measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level, the measurement would likely precede morphine use by months to years, as it's often part of a diagnostic pathway that may eventually lead to cancer-related pain requiring opioids.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_morphine,Frequently seen comorbidities,"Malignant Neoplasms, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Congestive Heart Failure, Chronic Kidney Disease, Osteoarthritis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Major Depressive Disorder, Anxiety Disorders, Opioid Use Disorder, Ischaemic Heart Disease (These comorbidities are frequently the primary causes of the severe pain or breathlessness necessitating morphine use, or are commonly associated with the population requiring such potent analgesia or with long-term opioid exposure.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_morphine,Frequently seen signs and symptoms,"Severe Pain, Dyspnoea, Nausea, Vomiting, Constipation, Sedation, Pruritus, Dry Mouth, Urinary Retention, Miosis (These signs and symptoms reflect both the reasons for morphine administration (e.g., severe pain, dyspnoea) and the common adverse effects of opioid analgesics.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
user_of_morphine,Frequently seen medications,"Paracetamol, Ibuprofen, Ondansetron, Lactulose, Docusate Sodium, Sertraline, Gabapentin, Prednisolone, Diazepam, Fentanyl (These medications are commonly co-prescribed either to augment pain relief, manage the side effects of morphine, or treat concurrent symptoms or underlying conditions.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level,Clinical description,Measurement of prostate-specific antigen level is a blood test primarily used as a biomarker to screen for prostate cancer and monitor its progression or recurrence. Elevated levels can also indicate benign prostatic hyperplasia or prostatitis.,cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level,Frequency,"This is a frequently performed test in males, particularly those aged 50 and above, for prostate health evaluation. Cases can be readily identified in laboratory results from primary care, hospital records, and insurance claims data.",cohort_count,gemini-2.5-flash
measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level,Median age of incident cases,"60 to 70 (Individuals typically present for prostate-specific antigen level measurement in their later middle age to older adult years, aligning with general screening recommendations and the increased incidence of prostate conditions with age.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level,Percentage male,"99% to 100% (Prostate-specific antigen is produced by the prostate gland, which is a male anatomical structure, thus virtually all individuals undergoing this measurement will be male.)",cohort_characteristics,gemini-2.5-flash
measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level,Survival at five years,"85% to 95% (The overall five-year survival for a cohort undergoing prostate-specific antigen measurement is expected to be high, as many tests are for screening, monitoring benign conditions, or detecting highly treatable early-stage prostate cancers.)",cohort_survival,gemini-2.5-flash
measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level,Cohort overlap,"You would expect to see an overlap of 40-70% with hypertension, 20-40% with type 2 diabetes, 10-30% with hospitalised inpatient, 5-15% with user of warfarin, 50-80% with user of acetaminophen, and 2-10% with user of morphine.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level,Cohort timing,"For people in the measurement of prostate-specific antigen level cohort who also appear in other cohorts, their entry into hypertension, type 2 diabetes, user of warfarin, and user of acetaminophen cohorts would typically be before or concurrent. Entry into the hospitalised inpatient cohort could be before, concurrent, or after, and entry into the user of morphine cohort would often be after the initial prostate-specific antigen measurement, especially if related to advanced disease, but can be concurrent or before for other reasons. These chronic conditions and common medication uses often pre-date or coincide with the diagnostic process for prostate conditions.",compare_cohorts,gemini-2.5-flash
measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level,Frequently seen comorbidities,"Hypertension, type 2 diabetes, hyperlipidaemia, osteoarthritis, coronary artery disease, chronic kidney disease, congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cerebrovascular disease, anxiety disorder. (These comorbidities are frequently seen because prostate-specific antigen measurement is typically performed in an older male population, which has a higher prevalence of these age-related chronic conditions.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level,Frequently seen signs and symptoms,"Urinary frequency, nocturia, weak urine stream, urinary urgency, incomplete bladder emptying, erectile dysfunction, pelvic pain, back pain, haematuria, dysuria. (These signs and symptoms are often associated with underlying prostate conditions such as benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis, or prostate cancer, which prompt the prostate-specific antigen measurement.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
measurement_of_prostate_specific_antigen_level,Frequently seen medications,"Tamsulosin, finasteride, amlodipine, lisinopril, atorvastatin, metformin, paracetamol, acetylsalicylic acid, clopidogrel, sildenafil. (Medications such as alpha-blockers and 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors are used for benign prostate conditions, while others like antihypertensives, statins, and antidiabetics address common comorbidities in the age group undergoing prostate-specific antigen measurement.)","large_scale_characteristics, compare_large_scale_characteristics",gemini-2.5-flash
